MUL2.ŠID.MEŠ - Revision history

Sushoff at 18:38, 26 March 2026

2026-03-26T18:38:07Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:38, 26 March 2026
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	MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ (𒋼𒋃𒈨𒌍) = ''kakkabū minâti'', is an ancient Mesopotamian term for a specific set of stars close to the ecliptic that were used in mathematical astronomy in the late first millennium BCE. In the 19th century, Epping coined the term "Normalsterne" (normal stars) for them, which is used in modern Assyriology literature. The term is derived from Latin "norma" for "measure". These stars form a natural frame of reference, as they were considered fixed in place, in contrast to the planets which move relative to the display of stars. Thus, planet positions are sometimes given relative to these "measure stars" (or "counting stars" as the Mesopotamian term literally translates).		MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ (𒋼𒋃𒈨𒌍) = ''kakkabū minâti'', is an ancient Mesopotamian term for a specific set of stars close to the ecliptic that were used in mathematical astronomy in the late first millennium BCE. In the 19th century, Epping coined the term "Normalsterne" (normal stars) for them, which is used in modern Assyriology literature. The term is derived from Latin "norma" for "measure". These stars form a natural frame of reference, as they were considered fixed in place, in contrast to the planets which move relative to the display of stars. Thus, planet positions are sometimes given relative to these "measure stars" (or "counting stars" as the Mesopotamian term literally translates).

	==Concordance, Etymology, History==		== Concordance, Etymology, History<ref>[[Mesopotamian (All Terms)\|Planetarium Babylonicum 2.0]], All Skies Encyclopaedia.</ref> ==
	~~===Kurtik with Hilder~~, ~~Hoffmann, Horowitz, Kim=~~==
	= ''kakkabū minâti'' "Stars (for) counting". About 40 stars in the zodiacal belt, relative to the positions of the moon and planets at certain points in time, were recorded in the "Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts". In modern literature, they are known as the "normal stars" (Normal Stars, Normalsterne), introduced by Epping [Epping 1889<ref>''Epping J.'' Astronomisches aus Babylon. Freiburg, 1889. ETCSL.</ref>, 115]. See also (Kurtik m34) [[MUL.MEŠ kayyamānūtu\|MUL.MEŠ ''kayyamānūtu'']].		= ''kakkabū minâti'' "Stars (for) counting". About 40 stars in the zodiacal belt, relative to the positions of the moon and planets at certain points in time, were recorded in the "Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts". In modern literature, they are known as the "normal stars" (Normal Stars, Normalsterne), introduced by Epping [Epping 1889<ref>''Epping J.'' Astronomisches aus Babylon. Freiburg, 1889. ETCSL.</ref>, 115]. See also (Kurtik m34) [[MUL.MEŠ kayyamānūtu\|MUL.MEŠ ''kayyamānūtu'']].
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Sushoff at 18:32, 26 March 2026

2026-03-26T18:32:35Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:32, 26 March 2026
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	{{DISPLAYTITLE:MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ}}		{{DISPLAYTITLE:MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ}}
	Authors: ~~Gennady E. Kurtik,~~ {{PAGEAUTHORS}}~~, Euin Choung Kim~~		Authors: {{PAGEAUTHORS}}
	----		----
	[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014.jpg\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars (CC BY SMH 2014)]]		[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014.jpg\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars (CC BY SMH 2014)]]

Sushoff at 08:19, 17 January 2026

2026-01-17T08:19:31Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:19, 17 January 2026
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	{{DISPLAYTITLE:MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ}}		{{DISPLAYTITLE:MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ}}
			Authors: Gennady E. Kurtik, {{PAGEAUTHORS}}, Euin Choung Kim
			----
	[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014.jpg\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars (CC BY SMH 2014)]]		[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014.jpg\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars (CC BY SMH 2014)]]
	MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ (𒋼𒋃𒈨𒌍) = ''kakkabū minâti'', is an ancient Mesopotamian term for a specific set of stars close to the ecliptic that were used in mathematical astronomy in the late first millennium BCE. In the 19th century, Epping coined the term "Normalsterne" (normal stars) for them, which is used in modern Assyriology literature. The term is derived from Latin "norma" for "measure". These stars form a natural frame of reference, as they were considered fixed in place, in contrast to the planets which move relative to the display of stars. Thus, planet positions are sometimes given relative to these "measure stars" (or "counting stars" as the Mesopotamian term literally translates).		MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ (𒋼𒋃𒈨𒌍) = ''kakkabū minâti'', is an ancient Mesopotamian term for a specific set of stars close to the ecliptic that were used in mathematical astronomy in the late first millennium BCE. In the 19th century, Epping coined the term "Normalsterne" (normal stars) for them, which is used in modern Assyriology literature. The term is derived from Latin "norma" for "measure". These stars form a natural frame of reference, as they were considered fixed in place, in contrast to the planets which move relative to the display of stars. Thus, planet positions are sometimes given relative to these "measure stars" (or "counting stars" as the Mesopotamian term literally translates).

JanSafford at 13:43, 9 January 2026

2026-01-09T13:43:00Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:43, 9 January 2026
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	\|'''"Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts."'''		\|'''"Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts."'''
	*[''dele'']-''bat'' GU<sub>4</sub>.UD ''u'' MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID<sup>meš</sup> IGI<sup>meš</sup> "[Ve]nus, Mercury and the 'normal stars' were visible ..." [~~ADRT~~ III<ref name=":1">''Sachs A., Hunger H''. Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia. Vol. I: Diaries from 652 B.C. to 262 B.C.; Vol. II: from 261 B.C. to 165 B.C.; Vol. III: Diaries from 164 B.C. to 75 B.C. Vienna, 1988, 1989, 1991.</ref>, No.-136 B rev. 14].		*[''dele'']-''bat'' GU<sub>4</sub>.UD ''u'' MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID<sup>meš</sup> IGI<sup>meš</sup> "[Ve]nus, Mercury and the 'normal stars' were visible ..." [Sachs-Hunger Diaries III<ref name=":1">''Sachs A., Hunger H''. Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia. Vol. I: Diaries from 652 B.C. to 262 B.C.; Vol. II: from 261 B.C. to 165 B.C.; Vol. III: Diaries from 164 B.C. to 75 B.C. Vienna, 1988, 1989, 1991.</ref>, No.-136 B rev. 14].
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	===Additional===		===Additional===
	[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014 b.gif\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars with Labels (CC BY SMH 2025).]]		[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014 b.gif\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars with Labels (CC BY SMH 2025).]]
	A complete list of "normal stars" has not been established. For reconstructions of varying degrees of completeness, see. [Sachs 1974<ref>''Sachs A.'' Babylonian Observational Astronomy / The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World. Ed. F.R.Hodson et al., London, 1974. P. 43-50 (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Ser. A. 276).</ref>, 46; Aaboe 1980<ref>''Aaboe A.'' Observation and Theory in Babylonian Astronomy// Centaurus. 1980. Vol. 24. P. 14-35</ref>, 22; ~~ADRT~~ I<ref name=":1" />, 17-19; ~~ASM~~<ref name=":3">''Hunger H., Pingree D.'' Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia. Leiden-Boston-Köln, 1999.</ref>, 148-149; Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004<ref name=":2" />].		A complete list of "normal stars" has not been established. For reconstructions of varying degrees of completeness, see. [Sachs 1974<ref>''Sachs A.'' Babylonian Observational Astronomy / The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World. Ed. F.R.Hodson et al., London, 1974. P. 43-50 (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Ser. A. 276).</ref>, 46; Aaboe 1980<ref>''Aaboe A.'' Observation and Theory in Babylonian Astronomy// Centaurus. 1980. Vol. 24. P. 14-35</ref>, 22; Sachs-Hunger Diaries I<ref name=":1" />, 17-19; Hunger-Pingree 1999<ref name=":3">''Hunger H., Pingree D.'' Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia. Leiden-Boston-Köln, 1999.</ref>, 148-149; Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004<ref name=":2" />].

	The list below corresponds to the list of "normal stars" in [~~ADRT~~<ref name=":1" /> I, 17-19; ~~ASM~~<ref name=":3" />, 148-149] and differs from it only in nos. 28, 31-32, 36-38. The identifications in nos. 31-32, 34-38 are from [Roughton-Canzoneri 1992<ref>''Roughton N.A., Canzoneri G.L''. Babylonian Normal Stars in Sagittarius // JHA. 1992. V. XXIII. P. 193-200.</ref>; Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004<ref name=":2" />], see also [Jones 2004].		The list below corresponds to the list of "normal stars" in [Sachs-Hunger Diaries<ref name=":1" /> I, 17-19; Hunger-Pingree 1999<ref name=":3" />, 148-149] and differs from it only in nos. 28, 31-32, 36-38. The identifications in nos. 31-32, 34-38 are from [Roughton-Canzoneri 1992<ref>''Roughton N.A., Canzoneri G.L''. Babylonian Normal Stars in Sagittarius // JHA. 1992. V. XXIII. P. 193-200.</ref>; Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004<ref name=":2" />], see also [Jones 2004].

	=== List of Normal Stars ===		=== List of Normal Stars ===
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	I. Источники.		I. Источники.

	EAE. См. [BPO 3, K.2226+:13; K.3601+:37; K.12762:4–5]. Текст BM 41004. mul<sub>2</sub>.šid.meš, mul<sub>2</sub>.šid.me, mul<sub>x</sub>.šid.meš [Neugebauer–Sachs 1967, 201–202, rev. 1, 5, 10, 13, 16, 18, 20, 21]. «Дневники наблюдений». [dele]-bat GU<sub>4</sub>.UD u MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID<sup>meš</sup> IGI<sup>meš</sup> «[Ве]нера, Меркурий и «нормальные звезды» были видны …» [~~ADRT~~ III, No.-136 B rev. 14]. Текст BM 36609. (1) Список «нормальных звезд»: [MUL<sub>2</sub> SAG] A […] «[Голова] Льва — […]», / ˹MUL<sub>2</sub>˺ LUGAL […] «Царь — […]», / MUL<sub>2</sub> TUR ša<sub>2</sub> 4 <KUŠ<sub>3</sub>> ar<sub>2</sub> LUGAL MU[L<sub>4</sub> …] «Маленькая звезда в 4 <локтях> позади Царя — Звез[…]», / GIŠ.KUN MUL<sub>4</sub> […] «Бедро — звезда […]», / GIR<sub>2</sub> EGIR-tum ša<sub>2</sub> A MUL<sub>4</sub> […] «Задняя лапа Льва — звезда […]», / DELE ša<sub>2</sub> IGI ABSIN ˹MUL<sub>4</sub><sup>?</sup>˺ […] «Отдельная звезда впереди Борозды — звезда […]», / SA<sub>4</sub> ša<sub>2</sub> ABSIN M[UL<sub>4</sub>…] Блестящая (звезда) Борозды — з[везда …]», / ERIN<sub>2</sub> ša<sub>2</sub> ULU<sub>3</sub> M[UL<sub>4</sub>…] «Южная часть Весов — з[везда …]», / ERIN<sub>2</sub> ša<sub>2</sub> SI M[UL<sub>4</sub>…] «Северная часть Весов — з[везда …]», / SAG GIR<sub>2</sub>.TAB M[UL<sub>4</sub>…] «Голова Скорпиона — з[везда …]», / SI<sub>4</sub> M[UL<sub>4</sub>…] «Лиси — з[везда …]», / KIR<sub>4</sub> šil-taḫ ˹PA<sup>?</sup>˺ [MUL<sub>4</sub>] x «Наконечник стрелы Пабилсага — [звезда …]», / ˹4-AM<sub>2</sub> IGI.MEŠ ša<sub>2</sub> PA˺ MUL<sub>4</sub> 30 GAN «4 звезды впереди Пабилсага — звезда на 300 (ошибка, д. б. 90) в знаке IX(= Стрелец)», / 4-AM<sub>2</sub> ar<sub>2</sub>.MEŠ ša<sub>2</sub> PA MUL<sub>4</sub> 20 «4 звезды позади Пабилсага — звезда на 200», / SI MAŠ<sub>2</sub> MUL<sub>4</sub> 11,30 AB «Рог Козы–Рыбы — звезда на 11;300 в знаке X(=Козерог)», / <MUL IGI ša<sub>2</sub>> SUḪUR<sup>?</sup>.MAŠ<sub>2</sub> MUL<sub>4</sub> 28,30 «<Передняя звезда> Козы-Рыбы — звезда на 28;300», / <MUL<sub>2</sub> ar<sub>2</sub> ša<sub>2</sub>> SUḪUR.MAŠ<sup>?</sup> MUL<sub>4</sub> 30 «<Задняя звезда> Козы-Рыбы — звезда на 300», / ˹qup˺-pu ˹IGI˺ ša<sub>2</sub> <sup><<d>></sup>GU.LA MUL<sub>4</sub> 24 (далее подчистка) «Передняя емкость Великана — звезда на 240 […](?)», / ˹qup˺-pu ar<sub>2</sub> MUL<sub>4</sub> 7,30 ŠE «Задняя емкость (Великана) — звезда на 7;300 в знаке XII (= Рыбы)», / DUR SIM.MAḪ MUL<sub>4</sub> 26?, [1]5 ŠE «Лента Ласточки — звезда на 26?;[1]5? в знаке XII(= Рыбы)», / DUR MUL<sub>2</sub> nu-nu MUL<sub>4</sub> 3,20 BAR «Лента Рыбы (=Ануниту) — звезда в 3;200 в знаке I (= Овен)» [Roughton–Steele–Walker 2004, 550–551, Section 8: rev. iv 2′–22′]; в тексте названия месяцев (GAN, AB, ŠE, BAR) используются для обозначения соответствующих знаков зодиака [ibid., 551]. (2) Список интервалов между звездами или группами звезд: TA DUR nu-nu ˹15<sup>?</sup>˺ UŠ 30<sup>?</sup> […] «От ленты Рыб 150? 30? […]», / … / 5 UŠ ana KUN x x […] (возможно KUN ˹ša<sub>2</sub>˺ ḪUN) «50 до Хвоста Наемника(?)», / 13 UŠ ana MUL<sub>2</sub>.MUL<sub>2</sub> [x] «130 до Звезд», / 10 UŠ ana SA<sub>4</sub> ša<sub>2</sub> <sup>múl</sup>G[U<sub>4</sub>.AN.NA] «100 до блестящей звезды [Небесного Бы]ка», / DAL.BA.AN.˹NA<sup>?</sup>˺ MUL<sub>2</sub>.MUL<sub>2</sub> u <sup>múl</sup>GU<sub>4</sub>.<AN>.NA 30 [UŠ] «Промежуток – Звезды и Небесный бык – (составляет) 300(?)», / 10 UŠ ana SI <sup>múl</sup>GU<sub>4</sub>.[AN.NA] «100 до Рога [Небесного] Быка», / … / ˹5 UŠ˺ ana ˹MAŠ.MAŠ IGI˺ «50 до передней (звезды) Близнецов», / 5 UŠ ana MAŠ.MAŠ ar<sub>2</sub> «50 до задней (звезды) Близнецов», / ˹⅔ KASKAL˺ ana MUL<sub>2</sub>.MEŠ IGI.MEŠ ša<sub>2</sub> ALLA «200 до передних звезд Краба», / 5 UŠ ana MUL<sub>2</sub>.MEŠ ar<sub>2</sub>.MEŠ ša<sub>2</sub> ALLA NA MUL<sub>2</sub>.BABBAR «50 до задних звезд Краба … Юпитер», / ½ KASKAL ana 2 MUL<sub>2</sub>.MEŠ ša<sub>2</sub> SAG A «150 до 2 звезд головы Льва», / 10 UŠ ana <sup>múl</sup>LUGAL «100 до Царя», / ⅔ KASKAL ana GIŠ.KUN ša<sub>2</sub> UR.A «200 до бедра Льва» [Roughton–Steele–Walker 2004, Section 9: rev. iv 23′–39′]. См. также выражение в текстах ЕАЕ: MUL NU ŠID.MEŠ «Звезда, не входящая в число «звезд для счета» [BPO 3, 215:36, 237:28, 244:18, 253:3, 254:4].		EAE. См. [BPO 3, K.2226+:13; K.3601+:37; K.12762:4–5]. Текст BM 41004. mul<sub>2</sub>.šid.meš, mul<sub>2</sub>.šid.me, mul<sub>x</sub>.šid.meš [Neugebauer–Sachs 1967, 201–202, rev. 1, 5, 10, 13, 16, 18, 20, 21]. «Дневники наблюдений». [dele]-bat GU<sub>4</sub>.UD u MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID<sup>meš</sup> IGI<sup>meš</sup> «[Ве]нера, Меркурий и «нормальные звезды» были видны …» [Sachs-Hunger Diaries III, No.-136 B rev. 14]. Текст BM 36609. (1) Список «нормальных звезд»: [MUL<sub>2</sub> SAG] A […] «[Голова] Льва — […]», / ˹MUL<sub>2</sub>˺ LUGAL […] «Царь — […]», / MUL<sub>2</sub> TUR ša<sub>2</sub> 4 <KUŠ<sub>3</sub>> ar<sub>2</sub> LUGAL MU[L<sub>4</sub> …] «Маленькая звезда в 4 <локтях> позади Царя — Звез[…]», / GIŠ.KUN MUL<sub>4</sub> […] «Бедро — звезда […]», / GIR<sub>2</sub> EGIR-tum ša<sub>2</sub> A MUL<sub>4</sub> […] «Задняя лапа Льва — звезда […]», / DELE ša<sub>2</sub> IGI ABSIN ˹MUL<sub>4</sub><sup>?</sup>˺ […] «Отдельная звезда впереди Борозды — звезда […]», / SA<sub>4</sub> ša<sub>2</sub> ABSIN M[UL<sub>4</sub>…] Блестящая (звезда) Борозды — з[везда …]», / ERIN<sub>2</sub> ša<sub>2</sub> ULU<sub>3</sub> M[UL<sub>4</sub>…] «Южная часть Весов — з[везда …]», / ERIN<sub>2</sub> ša<sub>2</sub> SI M[UL<sub>4</sub>…] «Северная часть Весов — з[везда …]», / SAG GIR<sub>2</sub>.TAB M[UL<sub>4</sub>…] «Голова Скорпиона — з[везда …]», / SI<sub>4</sub> M[UL<sub>4</sub>…] «Лиси — з[везда …]», / KIR<sub>4</sub> šil-taḫ ˹PA<sup>?</sup>˺ [MUL<sub>4</sub>] x «Наконечник стрелы Пабилсага — [звезда …]», / ˹4-AM<sub>2</sub> IGI.MEŠ ša<sub>2</sub> PA˺ MUL<sub>4</sub> 30 GAN «4 звезды впереди Пабилсага — звезда на 300 (ошибка, д. б. 90) в знаке IX(= Стрелец)», / 4-AM<sub>2</sub> ar<sub>2</sub>.MEŠ ša<sub>2</sub> PA MUL<sub>4</sub> 20 «4 звезды позади Пабилсага — звезда на 200», / SI MAŠ<sub>2</sub> MUL<sub>4</sub> 11,30 AB «Рог Козы–Рыбы — звезда на 11;300 в знаке X(=Козерог)», / <MUL IGI ša<sub>2</sub>> SUḪUR<sup>?</sup>.MAŠ<sub>2</sub> MUL<sub>4</sub> 28,30 «<Передняя звезда> Козы-Рыбы — звезда на 28;300», / <MUL<sub>2</sub> ar<sub>2</sub> ša<sub>2</sub>> SUḪUR.MAŠ<sup>?</sup> MUL<sub>4</sub> 30 «<Задняя звезда> Козы-Рыбы — звезда на 300», / ˹qup˺-pu ˹IGI˺ ša<sub>2</sub> <sup><<d>></sup>GU.LA MUL<sub>4</sub> 24 (далее подчистка) «Передняя емкость Великана — звезда на 240 […](?)», / ˹qup˺-pu ar<sub>2</sub> MUL<sub>4</sub> 7,30 ŠE «Задняя емкость (Великана) — звезда на 7;300 в знаке XII (= Рыбы)», / DUR SIM.MAḪ MUL<sub>4</sub> 26?, [1]5 ŠE «Лента Ласточки — звезда на 26?;[1]5? в знаке XII(= Рыбы)», / DUR MUL<sub>2</sub> nu-nu MUL<sub>4</sub> 3,20 BAR «Лента Рыбы (=Ануниту) — звезда в 3;200 в знаке I (= Овен)» [Roughton–Steele–Walker 2004, 550–551, Section 8: rev. iv 2′–22′]; в тексте названия месяцев (GAN, AB, ŠE, BAR) используются для обозначения соответствующих знаков зодиака [ibid., 551]. (2) Список интервалов между звездами или группами звезд: TA DUR nu-nu ˹15<sup>?</sup>˺ UŠ 30<sup>?</sup> […] «От ленты Рыб 150? 30? […]», / … / 5 UŠ ana KUN x x […] (возможно KUN ˹ša<sub>2</sub>˺ ḪUN) «50 до Хвоста Наемника(?)», / 13 UŠ ana MUL<sub>2</sub>.MUL<sub>2</sub> [x] «130 до Звезд», / 10 UŠ ana SA<sub>4</sub> ša<sub>2</sub> <sup>múl</sup>G[U<sub>4</sub>.AN.NA] «100 до блестящей звезды [Небесного Бы]ка», / DAL.BA.AN.˹NA<sup>?</sup>˺ MUL<sub>2</sub>.MUL<sub>2</sub> u <sup>múl</sup>GU<sub>4</sub>.<AN>.NA 30 [UŠ] «Промежуток – Звезды и Небесный бык – (составляет) 300(?)», / 10 UŠ ana SI <sup>múl</sup>GU<sub>4</sub>.[AN.NA] «100 до Рога [Небесного] Быка», / … / ˹5 UŠ˺ ana ˹MAŠ.MAŠ IGI˺ «50 до передней (звезды) Близнецов», / 5 UŠ ana MAŠ.MAŠ ar<sub>2</sub> «50 до задней (звезды) Близнецов», / ˹⅔ KASKAL˺ ana MUL<sub>2</sub>.MEŠ IGI.MEŠ ša<sub>2</sub> ALLA «200 до передних звезд Краба», / 5 UŠ ana MUL<sub>2</sub>.MEŠ ar<sub>2</sub>.MEŠ ša<sub>2</sub> ALLA NA MUL<sub>2</sub>.BABBAR «50 до задних звезд Краба … Юпитер», / ½ KASKAL ana 2 MUL<sub>2</sub>.MEŠ ša<sub>2</sub> SAG A «150 до 2 звезд головы Льва», / 10 UŠ ana <sup>múl</sup>LUGAL «100 до Царя», / ⅔ KASKAL ana GIŠ.KUN ša<sub>2</sub> UR.A «200 до бедра Льва» [Roughton–Steele–Walker 2004, Section 9: rev. iv 23′–39′]. См. также выражение в текстах ЕАЕ: MUL NU ŠID.MEŠ «Звезда, не входящая в число «звезд для счета» [BPO 3, 215:36, 237:28, 244:18, 253:3, 254:4].

	Полный список «нормальных звезд» не установлен. Реконструкции различной степени полноты см. [Sachs 1974, 46; Aaboe 1980, 22; ~~ADRT~~ I, 17–19; ~~ASM~~, 148–149; Roughton–Steele–Walker 2004].		Полный список «нормальных звезд» не установлен. Реконструкции различной степени полноты см. [Sachs 1974, 46; Aaboe 1980, 22; Sachs-Hunger Diaries I, 17–19; Hunger-Pingree 1999, 148–149; Roughton–Steele–Walker 2004].

	Приведенный ниже список соответствует списку «нормальных звезд» в [~~ADRT~~ I, 17–19; ~~ASM~~, 148–149] и отличается от него только № 28, 31–32, 36–38. Отождествления в № 31–32, 34–38 даны по [Roughton–Canzoneri 1992; Roughton–Steele–Walker 2004], см. также [Jones 2004].		Приведенный ниже список соответствует списку «нормальных звезд» в [Sachs-Hunger Diaries I, 17–19; Hunger-Pingree 1999, 148–149] и отличается от него только № 28, 31–32, 36–38. Отождествления в № 31–32, 34–38 даны по [Roughton–Canzoneri 1992; Roughton–Steele–Walker 2004], см. также [Jones 2004].

Sushoff at 16:59, 13 October 2025

2025-10-13T16:59:49Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:59, 13 October 2025
Line 1:		Line 1:
	{{DISPLAYTITLE:MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ}}		{{DISPLAYTITLE:MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ}}
	[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014.jpg\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars (CC BY SMH 2014)]]		[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014.jpg\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars (CC BY SMH 2014)]]
	MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ (𒋼𒋃𒈨𒌍) = ''[[kakkabū minâti]]'', is an ancient Mesopotamian term for a specific set of stars close to the ecliptic that were used in mathematical astronomy in the late first millennium BCE. In the 19th century, Epping coined the term "Normalsterne" (normal stars) for them, which is used in modern Assyriology literature. The term is derived from Latin "norma" for "measure". These stars form a natural frame of reference, as they were considered fixed in place, in contrast to the planets which move relative to the display of stars. Thus, planet positions are sometimes given relative to these "measure stars" (or "counting stars" as the Mesopotamian term literally translates).		MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ (𒋼𒋃𒈨𒌍) = ''kakkabū minâti'', is an ancient Mesopotamian term for a specific set of stars close to the ecliptic that were used in mathematical astronomy in the late first millennium BCE. In the 19th century, Epping coined the term "Normalsterne" (normal stars) for them, which is used in modern Assyriology literature. The term is derived from Latin "norma" for "measure". These stars form a natural frame of reference, as they were considered fixed in place, in contrast to the planets which move relative to the display of stars. Thus, planet positions are sometimes given relative to these "measure stars" (or "counting stars" as the Mesopotamian term literally translates).

	==Concordance, Etymology, History==		==Concordance, Etymology, History==

Sushoff at 16:47, 13 October 2025

2025-10-13T16:47:09Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:47, 13 October 2025
Line 65:		Line 65:
	#"Fox — s[tar ...]",		#"Fox — s[tar ...]",
	#"Pabilsag's arrowhead — [star ...]",		#"Pabilsag's arrowhead — [star ...]",
	#"4 stars ahead of Pabilsag — star at ~~300~~ (error, d. b. 90) in the sign IX(=Sagittarius)",		#"4 stars ahead of Pabilsag — star at 30° (error, d. b. 90) in the sign IX(=Sagittarius)",
	#"4 stars behind Pabilsag - star at ~~200~~",		#"4 stars behind Pabilsag - star at 20°",
	#"Horn of the Goat-Fish - star at 11;~~300~~ in the sign X(=Capricorn)",		#"Horn of the Goat-Fish - star at 11;30° in the sign X(=Capricorn)",
	#"<Front star> Goat-Fish - star at 28;~~300~~",		#"<Front star> Goat-Fish - star at 28;30°",
	#"<Rear Star> Goat-Fish - star at ~~300~~",		#"<Rear Star> Goat-Fish - star at 30°",
	#"Giant's Frontal Capacity – star at ~~240~~ [...](? )",		#"Giant's Frontal Capacity – star at 24° [...](? )",
	#"Rear capacity (of the Giant) — star at 7;~~300~~ in sign XII (= Pisces)",		#"Rear capacity (of the Giant) — star at 7;30° in sign XII (= Pisces)",
	#"Ribbon of the Swallow — star at 26?;[1]5? in sign XII(= Pisces)",		#"Ribbon of the Swallow — star at 26?;[1]5? in sign XII(= Pisces)",
	#"Ribbon of the Pisces (=Anunitu) - star at 3;~~200~~ in sign I (= Aries)"		#"Ribbon of the Pisces (=Anunitu) - star at 3;20° in sign I (= Aries)"
	\|-		\|-
	\| colspan="2" \|In the text, the names of the months (GAN, AB, ŠE, BAR) are used to refer to the corresponding signs of the zodiac [ibid.<ref name=":2" />, 551].		\| colspan="2" \|In the text, the names of the months (GAN, AB, ŠE, BAR) are used to refer to the corresponding signs of the zodiac [ibid.<ref name=":2" />, 551].
Line 123:		Line 123:
	#ε Leonis,		#ε Leonis,
	#[[Regulus]] (α Leonis)		#[[Regulus]] (α Leonis)
	#ρ Leonis,		#[[Shaomin]] (ρ Leonis),
	#θ Leonis,		#[[Chertan]] (θ Leonis),
	#β Virginis,		#[[Zavijava]] (β Virginis),
	#γ Virginis,		#[[Porrima]] (γ Virginis),
	#α Virginis,		#[[Spica]] (α Virginis),
	#α Librae,		#[[Zubenelgenubi]] (α Librae),
	#β Librae,		#[[Zubeneschamali]] (β Librae),
	#δ, β, π Scorpii,		#[[Dschubba]], [[Acrab]], [[Fang]] (δ, β, π Scorpii),
	#"Fox — s[tar ...]",		#"Fox — s[tar ...]",
	#θ Ophiuchi,		#θ Ophiuchi,
	#μ (13), 14, 15 and 16 Sagittarii,		#[[Polis]] (μ /13 Sgr), 14, 15 and 16 Sagittarii,
	#ν1, ν2, ξ1 and ξ2 Sagittarii,		#[[Ainalrami]] (ν1 Sgr), ν2, ξ1 and ξ2 Sagittarii,
	#β Capricorni,		#[[Dabih]] (β Capricorni),
	#γ Capricorni,		#[[Nashira]] (γ Capricorni),
	#δ Capricorni,		#[[Deneb Algedi]] (δ Capricorni),
	#probably ψ1 + ψ2 + ψ3 Aquarii,		#probably ψ1 + ψ2 + ψ3 Aquarii,
	#(identification not established),		#(identification not established),

InitTeam at 11:43, 29 September 2025

2025-09-29T11:43:24Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:43, 29 September 2025
Line 5:		Line 5:
	==Concordance, Etymology, History==		==Concordance, Etymology, History==
	===Kurtik with Hilder, Hoffmann, Horowitz, Kim===		===Kurtik with Hilder, Hoffmann, Horowitz, Kim===
	= ''kakkabū minâti'' "Stars (for) counting". About 40 stars in the zodiacal belt, relative to the positions of the moon and planets at certain points in time, were recorded in the "Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts". In modern literature, they are known as the "normal stars" (Normal Stars, Normalsterne), introduced by Epping [Epping 1889, 115]. See also (Kurtik m34) [[MUL.MEŠ kayyamānūtu\|MUL.MEŠ ''kayyamānūtu'']].		= ''kakkabū minâti'' "Stars (for) counting". About 40 stars in the zodiacal belt, relative to the positions of the moon and planets at certain points in time, were recorded in the "Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts". In modern literature, they are known as the "normal stars" (Normal Stars, Normalsterne), introduced by Epping [Epping 1889<ref>''Epping J.'' Astronomisches aus Babylon. Freiburg, 1889. ETCSL.</ref>, 115]. See also (Kurtik m34) [[MUL.MEŠ kayyamānūtu\|MUL.MEŠ ''kayyamānūtu'']].
	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	\|+		\|+
Line 12:		Line 12:
	\|-		\|-
	\|'''EAE.'''		\|'''EAE.'''
	*See. [BPO 3, K.2226+:13; K.3601+:37; K.12762:4-5].		*See. [BPO 3<ref name=":0">''Reiner E., Pingree D''. Babylonian Planetary Omens. Part Three. Groningen, STYX Publications. 1998.</ref>, K.2226+:13; K.3601+:37; K.12762:4-5].
	\|		\|
	\|-		\|-
	\|'''Text BM 41004.'''		\|'''Text BM 41004.'''
	*mul<sub>2</sub>.šid.meš, mul<sub>2</sub>.šid.me, mul<sub>x</sub>.šid.meš [Neugebauer-Sachs 1967, 201-202, rev. 1, 5, 10, 13, 16, 18, 20, 21].		*mul<sub>2</sub>.šid.meš, mul<sub>2</sub>.šid.me, mul<sub>x</sub>.šid.meš [Neugebauer-Sachs 1967<ref>''Neugebauer O., Sachs A''. Some Atypical Astronomical Cuneiform Texts. I // JCS. 1967. V. 21. P. 183-218.</ref>, 201-202, rev. 1, 5, 10, 13, 16, 18, 20, 21].
	\|		\|
	\|-		\|-
	\|'''"Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts."'''		\|'''"Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts."'''
	*[''dele'']-''bat'' GU<sub>4</sub>.UD ''u'' MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID<sup>meš</sup> IGI<sup>meš</sup> "[Ve]nus, Mercury and the 'normal stars' were visible ..." [ADRT III, No.-136 B rev. 14].		*[''dele'']-''bat'' GU<sub>4</sub>.UD ''u'' MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID<sup>meš</sup> IGI<sup>meš</sup> "[Ve]nus, Mercury and the 'normal stars' were visible ..." [ADRT III<ref name=":1">''Sachs A., Hunger H''. Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia. Vol. I: Diaries from 652 B.C. to 262 B.C.; Vol. II: from 261 B.C. to 165 B.C.; Vol. III: Diaries from 164 B.C. to 75 B.C. Vienna, 1988, 1989, 1991.</ref>, No.-136 B rev. 14].
	\|		\|
	\|-		\|-
	\|'''Text BM 36609.'''		\|'''Text BM 36609.'''
	*(1) List of "normal stars."		*(1) List of "normal stars."
	*
	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	\|+		\|+
	![Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004, 550-551, Section 8: rev. iv 2′-22′]		![Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004<ref name=":2">''Roughton N.A., Steele J.M., Walker C.B.F.'' A Late Babylonian Normal and ''Ziqpu'' Star Text // AHES. 2004. Vol. 58. P. 537-572.</ref>, 550-551, Section 8: rev. iv 2′-22′]
	!		!
	\|-		\|-
Line 52:		Line 51:
	#/ ˹''qup''˺-''pu ar''<sub>2</sub> MUL<sub>4</sub> 7,30 ŠE ,		#/ ˹''qup''˺-''pu ar''<sub>2</sub> MUL<sub>4</sub> 7,30 ŠE ,
	#/ DUR SIM.MAḪ MUL<sub>4</sub> 26<sup>?</sup>, [1]5 ŠE ,		#/ DUR SIM.MAḪ MUL<sub>4</sub> 26<sup>?</sup>, [1]5 ŠE ,
	#/ DUR MUL<sub>2</sub> ''nu-nu'' MUL<sub>4</sub> 3.20 BAR ;		#/ DUR MUL<sub>2</sub> ''nu-nu'' MUL<sub>4</sub> 3.20 BAR;
	\|		\|
	#"[The head of] the Lion is [...]",		#"[The head of] the Lion is [...]",
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	#"Ribbon of the Pisces (=Anunitu) - star at 3;200 in sign I (= Aries)"		#"Ribbon of the Pisces (=Anunitu) - star at 3;200 in sign I (= Aries)"
	\|-		\|-
	\| colspan="2" \|in the text, the names of the months (GAN, AB, ŠE, BAR) are used to refer to the corresponding signs of the zodiac [ibid., 551].		\| colspan="2" \|In the text, the names of the months (GAN, AB, ŠE, BAR) are used to refer to the corresponding signs of the zodiac [ibid.<ref name=":2" />, 551].
	\|}		\|}

	*(2) List of intervals between stars or groups of stars:		*(2) List of intervals between stars or groups of stars:
	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	![Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004, Section 9: rev. iv 23′-39′]		![Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004<ref name=":2" />, Section 9: rev. iv 23′-39′]
	!		!
	\|-		\|-
Line 114:		Line 113:
	\|}		\|}
	*See also the expression in EAE texts:		*See also the expression in EAE texts:
	**MUL NU ŠID.MEŠ "A star that is not among the 'stars to count'" [BPO 3, 215:36, 237:28, 244:18, 253:3, 254:4].		**MUL NU ŠID.MEŠ "A star that is not among the 'stars to count'" [BPO 3<ref name=":0" />, 215:36, 237:28, 244:18, 253:3, 254:4].
	\|'''Text BM 36609'''		\|'''Text BM 36609'''
	* (1) List of "normal stars."		* (1) List of "normal stars."
Line 150:		Line 149:
	===Additional===		===Additional===
	[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014 b.gif\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars with Labels (CC BY SMH 2025).]]		[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014 b.gif\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars with Labels (CC BY SMH 2025).]]
	A complete list of "normal stars" has not been established. For reconstructions of varying degrees of completeness, see. [Sachs 1974, 46; Aaboe 1980, 22; ADRT I, 17-19; ASM, 148-149; Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004].		A complete list of "normal stars" has not been established. For reconstructions of varying degrees of completeness, see. [Sachs 1974<ref>''Sachs A.'' Babylonian Observational Astronomy / The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World. Ed. F.R.Hodson et al., London, 1974. P. 43-50 (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Ser. A. 276).</ref>, 46; Aaboe 1980<ref>''Aaboe A.'' Observation and Theory in Babylonian Astronomy// Centaurus. 1980. Vol. 24. P. 14-35</ref>, 22; ADRT I<ref name=":1" />, 17-19; ASM<ref name=":3">''Hunger H., Pingree D.'' Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia. Leiden-Boston-Köln, 1999.</ref>, 148-149; Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004<ref name=":2" />].

	The list below corresponds to the list of "normal stars" in [ADRT I, 17-19; ASM, 148-149] and differs from it only in nos. 28, 31-32, 36-38. The identifications in nos. 31-32, 34-38 are from [Roughton-Canzoneri 1992; Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004], see also [Jones 2004].		The list below corresponds to the list of "normal stars" in [ADRT<ref name=":1" /> I, 17-19; ASM<ref name=":3" />, 148-149] and differs from it only in nos. 28, 31-32, 36-38. The identifications in nos. 31-32, 34-38 are from [Roughton-Canzoneri 1992<ref>''Roughton N.A., Canzoneri G.L''. Babylonian Normal Stars in Sagittarius // JHA. 1992. V. XXIII. P. 193-200.</ref>; Roughton-Steele-Walker 2004<ref name=":2" />], see also [Jones 2004].

	=== ~~LIST OF NORMAL STARS~~ ===		=== List of Normal Stars ===
	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	\|+		\|+

WayneHorowitz at 09:28, 19 September 2025

2025-09-19T09:28:02Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:28, 19 September 2025
Line 1:		Line 1:
	{{DISPLAYTITLE:MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ}}		{{DISPLAYTITLE:MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ}}
	[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014.jpg\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars (CC BY SMH 2014)]]		[[File:Babylonische Normalsterne SMH2014.jpg\|thumb\|Babylonian Normal Stars (CC BY SMH 2014)]]
	MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ (𒋼𒋃𒈨𒌍) is an ancient Mesopotamian term for a specific set of stars close to the ecliptic that were used in mathematical astronomy in the late first millennium BCE. In the 19th century, Epping coined the term "Normalsterne" (normal stars) for them, which is used in modern Assyriology literature. The term is derived from Latin "norma" for "measure". These stars form a natural frame of reference, as they were considered ~~fix~~, in contrast to the planets which move relative to the display of stars. Thus, planet positions are sometimes given relative to these "measure stars" (or "counting stars" as the Mesopotamian term literally translates).		MUL<sub>2</sub>.ŠID.MEŠ (𒋼𒋃𒈨𒌍) = ''[[kakkabū minâti]]'', is an ancient Mesopotamian term for a specific set of stars close to the ecliptic that were used in mathematical astronomy in the late first millennium BCE. In the 19th century, Epping coined the term "Normalsterne" (normal stars) for them, which is used in modern Assyriology literature. The term is derived from Latin "norma" for "measure". These stars form a natural frame of reference, as they were considered fixed in place, in contrast to the planets which move relative to the display of stars. Thus, planet positions are sometimes given relative to these "measure stars" (or "counting stars" as the Mesopotamian term literally translates).

	==Concordance, Etymology, History==		==Concordance, Etymology, History==

Sushoff: /* Additional */

2025-09-16T11:58:57Z

Additional

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:58, 16 September 2025
Line 99:		Line 99:
	#/ ⅔ KASKAL ''ana'' GIŠ.KUN ''ša''<sub>2</sub> UR.A .		#/ ⅔ KASKAL ''ana'' GIŠ.KUN ''ša''<sub>2</sub> UR.A .
	\|		\|
	#"From the ribbon of Pisces ~~150~~? 30? [...]",		#"From the ribbon of Pisces 15<sup>?</sup> UŠ 30<sup>?</sup> [...]",
	#"50 to Hired Man's Tail(?)",		#"5 UŠ to Hired Man's Tail(?)",
	#"~~130~~ to the Star Cluster",		#"13 UŠ to the Star Cluster",
	#"~~100~~ to the shining star of the [Celestial Bull]",		#"10 UŠ to the shining star of the [Celestial Bull]",
	#"The ~~span~~ — Star Cluster and Heavenly Bull - (is) ~~300(?)~~",		#"The interval — Star Cluster and Heavenly Bull - (is) 30 [UŠ]",
	#"~~100~~ to the Horn of the [Heavenly] Bull",		#"10 UŠ to the Horn of the [Heavenly] Bull",
	#"50 to the front (star) of Gemini",		#"5 UŠ to the front (star) of Gemini",
	#"50 to the back (star) of Gemini",		#"5 UŠ to the back (star) of Gemini",
	#"~~200~~ to the front stars of the Crab",		#"20 UŠ to the front stars of the Crab",
	#"50 to the back stars of the Crab ... Jupiter",		#"5 UŠ to the back stars of the Crab ... Jupiter",
	#"~~150~~ to the 2 stars of the head of the Lion",		#"15 UŠ to the 2 stars of the head of the Lion",
	#"~~100~~ to the King",		#"10 UŠ to the King",
	#"~~200~~ to the thigh of the Lion"		#"20 UŠ to the thigh of the Lion"
	\|}		\|}
	*See also the expression in EAE texts:		*See also the expression in EAE texts:
Line 145:		Line 145:
	\|}		\|}
	*(2) List of intervals between stars or groups of stars:		*(2) List of intervals between stars or groups of stars:
	~~{\| class="wikitable"~~		It is unclear what exactly UŠ means here: normally, it refers to °RA (time-degree) - may or may not fit.
	!
	\|-
	\|
	~~#"From the ribbon of Pisces 150? 30? [...]"~~,
	~~#"50~~ to ~~Hired Man's Tail~~(?)",
	~~#"130 to the Star Cluster",~~
	~~#"100 to the shining star of the [Celestial Bull]",~~
	~~#"The span — Star Cluster and Heavenly Bull~~ - ~~(is) 300(?)",~~
	~~#"100 to the Horn of the [Heavenly] Bull",~~
	~~#"50 to the front (star) of Gemini",~~
	~~#"50 to the back (star) of Gemini",~~
	~~#"200 to the front stars of the Crab",~~
	~~#"50 to the back stars of the Crab~~ .~~.. Jupiter",~~
	~~#"150 to the 2 stars of the head of the Lion",~~
	~~#"100 to the King",~~
	~~#"200 to the thigh of the Lion"~~
	\|}
	*
	\|}		\|}

Sushoff at 10:53, 16 September 2025

2025-09-16T10:53:38Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:53, 16 September 2025
Line 119:		Line 119:

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	!		!(Pingree<sup>?</sup>)
	\|-		\|-
	\|		\|