Taurus - Revision history

IanRidpath: En dashes

2026-07-22T21:03:40Z

En dashes

IanRidpath: Amended link

2026-07-22T20:54:44Z

Amended link

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:54, 22 July 2026
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	== Weblinks ==		== Weblinks ==
	* Ridpath, Ian, “[http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/taurus.html ~~Star Tales: online edition~~]”.		* Ridpath, Ian, ''Star Tales'' [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/taurus.html – Taurus]
	* [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017060 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database – Taurus]		* [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017060 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database – Taurus]

IanRidpath: Copy edit

2026-07-22T20:53:14Z

Copy edit

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:53, 22 July 2026
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	Authors: {{PAGEAUTHORS}}		Authors: {{PAGEAUTHORS}}
	----		----
	[[File:Taurus (tau).jpg\|alt=sstar chart of Taurus\|thumb\|Taurus, The Bull, modern definition. ~~credit~~: IAU and Sky & Telescope]]		[[File:Taurus (tau).jpg\|alt=sstar chart of Taurus\|thumb\|Taurus, The Bull, modern definition. Credit: IAU and Sky & Telescope]]
	One of the 88 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union IAU] constellations. For the star cluster-asterisms of the [[Pleiades]] and the [[Hyades]] see separate entry.		One of the 88 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union IAU] constellations. For the star cluster-asterisms of the [[Pleiades]] and the [[Hyades]] see separate entry.

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	\|ὁ μεταξὺ τούτου καὶ τοῦ βορεύου ὀφθαλμοῦ		\|ὁ μεταξὺ τούτου καὶ τοῦ βορεύου ὀφθαλμοῦ
	\|The stars in the face, called 'the Hyades': the one between this and the northern eye		\|The stars in the face, called 'the Hyades': the one between this and the northern eye
	\|~~del1~~ Tau		\|del<sup>1</sup> Tau
	\|-		\|-
	\|13		\|13
	\|ὁ μεταξὺ αὐτοῦ καὶ τοῦ φοτύου ὀφδαλμοῦ		\|ὁ μεταξὺ αὐτοῦ καὶ τοῦ φοτύου ὀφδαλμοῦ
	\|The stars in the face, called 'the Hyades': the one between it [no. 11] and the southern eye		\|The stars in the face, called 'the Hyades': the one between it [no. 11] and the southern eye
	\|~~tet1~~ Tau		\|tet<sup>1</sup> Tau
	\|-		\|-
	\|14		\|14
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	\|-		\|-
	\|13		\|13
	\|θ 1 Tauri		\|θ<sup>1</sup> Tauri
	\|HIP 20885		\|HIP 20885
	\|Inside the hull		\|Inside the hull
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	\|-		\|-
	\|16		\|16
	\|κ 1 Tauri		\|κ<sup>1</sup> Tauri
	\|HIP 20635		\|HIP 20635
	\|Constellation lines		\|Constellation lines
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	\|-		\|-
	\|19		\|19
	\|δ 3 Tauri		\|δ<sup>3</sup> Tauri
	\|HIP 20648		\|HIP 20648
	\|Inside the hull		\|Inside the hull
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	\|-		\|-
	\|24		\|24
	\|σ 2 Tauri		\|σ<sup>2</sup> Tauri
	\|HIP 21683		\|HIP 21683
	\|Inside the hull		\|Inside the hull
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	\|-		\|-
	\|27		\|27
	\|δ 2 Tauri		\|δ<sup>2</sup> Tauri
	\|HIP 20542		\|HIP 20542
	\|Inside the hull		\|Inside the hull
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	\|-		\|-
	\|30		\|30
	\|ω 2 Tauri		\|ω<sup>2</sup> Tauri
	\|HIP 19990		\|HIP 19990
	\|Constellation lines		\|Constellation lines
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	\|-		\|-
	\|35		\|35
	\|σ 1 Tauri		\|σ<sup>1</sup> Tauri
	\|HIP 21673		\|HIP 21673
	\|Inside the hull		\|Inside the hull
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	\|-		\|-
	\|42		\|42
	\|κ 2 Tauri		\|κ<sup>2</sup> Tauri
	\|HIP 20641		\|HIP 20641
	\|Inside the hull		\|Inside the hull
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	\|-		\|-
	\|52		\|52
	\|ω 1 Tauri		\|ω<sup>1</sup> Tauri
	\|HIP 19388		\|HIP 19388
	\|Inside the hull		\|Inside the hull
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	File:Tau+cap seal Wallenfels1993.png\|Taurus accompanied by a goat-fish on Mesopotamian seal print, Wallenfels (1993).		File:Tau+cap seal Wallenfels1993.png\|Taurus accompanied by a goat-fish on Mesopotamian seal print, Wallenfels (1993).
	File:Little BULL (drawn by Weidner 1967).png\|Bull of Heaven drawn on the clay tablet VAT 7851, drawing by Weidner (1967, reproduced by SMH).		File:Little BULL (drawn by Weidner 1967).png\|Bull of Heaven drawn on the clay tablet VAT 7851, drawing by Weidner (1967, reproduced by SMH).
	File:Taurus umzeichnung nicer.jpg\|~~clay~~ tablet VAT 7851, microzodiac tablet with drawings for the zodiac sign of Taurus, The Bull		File:Taurus umzeichnung nicer.jpg\|Clay tablet VAT 7851, microzodiac tablet with drawings for the zodiac sign of Taurus, The Bull
	File:Fig1 taurus tablet 150dpi sciLogs.jpg\|alt=Taurus sign with drawings of Pleiades (Bristle), Hyades (Chariot), Bull, and the Moon during a total lunar eclipse in the Moon's hypsoma; drawing by Hoffmann (2025)\|Taurus sign on clay tablet VAT 7851 with drawings of Pleiades (Bristle), Hyades (Chariot), Bull, and the Moon during a total lunar eclipse in the Moon's hypsoma; drawing by Hoffmann (2025)<ref>Hoffmann, S.M. (2025). Image Analysis of VAT 7851, [https://orientalistik.univie.ac.at/publikationen/afo/ Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)] 56, 45-53</ref>		File:Fig1 taurus tablet 150dpi sciLogs.jpg\|alt=Taurus sign with drawings of Pleiades (Bristle), Hyades (Chariot), Bull, and the Moon during a total lunar eclipse in the Moon's hypsoma; drawing by Hoffmann (2025)\|Taurus sign on clay tablet VAT 7851 with drawings of Pleiades (Bristle), Hyades (Chariot), Bull, and the Moon during a total lunar eclipse in the Moon's hypsoma; drawing by Hoffmann (2025)<ref>Hoffmann, S.M. (2025). Image Analysis of VAT 7851, [https://orientalistik.univie.ac.at/publikationen/afo/ Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)] 56, 45-53</ref>
	File:HeavenlyBull JessicaGullberg stellarium.jpg\|Front part of the Bull of Heaven, painted by Jessica Gullberg for Stellarium.		File:HeavenlyBull JessicaGullberg stellarium.jpg\|Front part of the Bull of Heaven, painted by Jessica Gullberg for Stellarium.

Sushoff: /* Eratosthenes[6] */

2026-06-12T06:27:42Z

Eratosthenes[6]

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:27, 12 June 2026
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	<blockquote>Near the feet of the Charioteer look for the horned Bull crouching. This constellation is very recognisable, so clearly defined is its head: one needs no other sign to identify the ox’s head, so well do the stars themselves model both sides of it as they go round. Their name is also very popular: the Hyades are not just nameless. They are set out all along the Bull’s face; the point of its left horn and the right foot of the adjacent Charioteer are occupied by a single star, and they are pinned together as they go. But the Bull is always ahead of the Charioteer in sinking to the horizon, though it rises simultaneously. (Kidd 1997)</blockquote>		<blockquote>Near the feet of the Charioteer look for the horned Bull crouching. This constellation is very recognisable, so clearly defined is its head: one needs no other sign to identify the ox’s head, so well do the stars themselves model both sides of it as they go round. Their name is also very popular: the Hyades are not just nameless. They are set out all along the Bull’s face; the point of its left horn and the right foot of the adjacent Charioteer are occupied by a single star, and they are pinned together as they go. But the Bull is always ahead of the Charioteer in sinking to the horizon, though it rises simultaneously. (Kidd 1997)</blockquote>

	===== Eratosthenes<ref>Ératosthènes de Cyrène: Catastérrismes, translated by Pamìas, Jordi und Zucker, Arnaud, Les Belles Lettres, Paris 2013</ref> ~~=====~~		===== Eratosthenes =====
	~~From Pamias and Zucker (2013)~~ translated to English by us.		From Pamias and Zucker (2013)<ref>Ératosthènes de Cyrène: Catastérrismes, translated by Pamìas, Jordi und Zucker, Arnaud, Les Belles Lettres, Paris 2013</ref> translated to English by us.

	Variant 1 (p. 45-46)<blockquote>It is said that he was placed among the constellations for having carried Europa across the sea from Phoenicia to Crete, as Euripides recounts in his Phrixos. This earned him Zeus's distinction and a place among the most visible constellations. Others claim that it is a cow, the replica of Io, and that it was out of consideration for the latter that it [the constellation] received this privilege from Zeus.</blockquote><blockquote>The stars named Hyades define the contours of the forehead and face of Taurus. At the break in the image of Taurus, at the height of the back, is the Pleiades, which has seven stars, and that is why it is also given the name ‘Heptaster’ (seven stars). In reality, only six are visible, as the seventh is completely unremarkable.</blockquote><blockquote>Taurus has seven stars, and it moves backwards with its head tucked towards its body: one at the base of each of its horns —the brightest being the one on the left—, one above each eye, one above each nostril, one above each shoulder: these are called ‘the Hyades’; it also has one on its left front knee, two on its hooves, one on its right knee, two on its neck, three on its back —the last of which is bright—, one under its belly, and one bright star on its chest. In all, eighteen. </blockquote>Variant 2 (p.47)<blockquote>It is said that he was placed among the constellations for having carried Europa safely across the sea from Phoenicia to Crete, as Euripides recounts in his Phrixos. This earned him Zeus's distinction and a place among the most visible constellations. Others claim that it is a cow that is among the constellations, the replica of Io; out of consideration for the latter, she received this privilege from Zeus.</blockquote><blockquote>The stars named ‘Hyades’ define the contours of the bull's forehead and face; Phercydes of Athens says that they are the nurses of Dionysus, known as the ‘nymphs of Dodona’. Taurus has a star on each of its horns, two on its forehead, one on each eye, one on each nostril (the latter are called ‘the Hyades’); it also has one on its front knee, two on its neck, three on its back, one on its hoof, one on its right knee, two on its belly, and one on its chest. Eighteen in all.</blockquote>		'''Variant 1''' (p. 45-46)<blockquote>It is said that he was placed among the constellations for having carried Europa across the sea from Phoenicia to Crete, as Euripides recounts in his Phrixos. This earned him Zeus's distinction and a place among the most visible constellations. Others claim that it is a cow, the replica of Io, and that it was out of consideration for the latter that it [the constellation] received this privilege from Zeus.</blockquote><blockquote>The stars named Hyades define the contours of the forehead and face of Taurus. At the break in the image of Taurus, at the height of the back, is the Pleiades, which has seven stars, and that is why it is also given the name ‘Heptaster’ (seven stars). In reality, only six are visible, as the seventh is completely unremarkable.</blockquote><blockquote>Taurus has seven stars, and it moves backwards with its head tucked towards its body: one at the base of each of its horns —the brightest being the one on the left—, one above each eye, one above each nostril, one above each shoulder: these are called ‘the Hyades’; it also has one on its left front knee, two on its hooves, one on its right knee, two on its neck, three on its back —the last of which is bright—, one under its belly, and one bright star on its chest. In all, eighteen. </blockquote>'''Variant 2''' (p.47)<blockquote>It is said that he was placed among the constellations for having carried Europa safely across the sea from Phoenicia to Crete, as Euripides recounts in his Phrixos. This earned him Zeus's distinction and a place among the most visible constellations. Others claim that it is a cow that is among the constellations, the replica of Io; out of consideration for the latter, she received this privilege from Zeus.</blockquote><blockquote>The stars named ‘Hyades’ define the contours of the bull's forehead and face; Phercydes of Athens says that they are the nurses of Dionysus, known as the ‘nymphs of Dodona’. Taurus has a star on each of its horns, two on its forehead, one on each eye, one on each nostril (the latter are called ‘the Hyades’); it also has one on its front knee, two on its neck, three on its back, one on its hoof, one on its right knee, two on its belly, and one on its chest. Eighteen in all.</blockquote>

	===== Hipparchus =====		===== Hipparchus =====

Sushoff: /* Transfer and Transformation of the Constellation */

2026-06-06T06:17:37Z

Transfer and Transformation of the Constellation

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:17, 6 June 2026
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	=== Transfer and Transformation of the Constellation ===		=== Transfer and Transformation of the Constellation ===
	<gallery>		<gallery>
			File:Tau seal Wallenfels1993.png\|Taurus on Mesopotamian seal print, Wallenfels (1993).
			File:Tau+cap seal Wallenfels1993.png\|Taurus accompanied by a goat-fish on Mesopotamian seal print, Wallenfels (1993).
	File:Little BULL (drawn by Weidner 1967).png\|Bull of Heaven drawn on the clay tablet VAT 7851, drawing by Weidner (1967, reproduced by SMH).		File:Little BULL (drawn by Weidner 1967).png\|Bull of Heaven drawn on the clay tablet VAT 7851, drawing by Weidner (1967, reproduced by SMH).
	File:Taurus umzeichnung nicer.jpg\|clay tablet VAT 7851, microzodiac tablet with drawings for the zodiac sign of Taurus, The Bull		File:Taurus umzeichnung nicer.jpg\|clay tablet VAT 7851, microzodiac tablet with drawings for the zodiac sign of Taurus, The Bull

Sushoff: /* Babylonian */

2026-06-06T06:15:50Z

Babylonian

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:15, 6 June 2026
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	The most important city in Sumer was Uruk, whose city goddess is Inanna/Ishtar. After Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu had already performed other heroic deeds, they fight together in Uruk against the celestial bull sent by Ishtar: the Bull of Heaven ([[GU4.AN.NA\|<sup>mul</sup>GU<sub>4</sub>.AN.NA]]) belonged to Ishtar's father, the sky god Anu, and was therefore a deity or mythical creature. The heroes succeed in defeating the beast when Enkidu grabs the bull from behind and Gilgamesh grabs it from the front. This explains the bisected constellation.		The most important city in Sumer was Uruk, whose city goddess is Inanna/Ishtar. After Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu had already performed other heroic deeds, they fight together in Uruk against the celestial bull sent by Ishtar: the Bull of Heaven ([[GU4.AN.NA\|<sup>mul</sup>GU<sub>4</sub>.AN.NA]]) belonged to Ishtar's father, the sky god Anu, and was therefore a deity or mythical creature. The heroes succeed in defeating the beast when Enkidu grabs the bull from behind and Gilgamesh grabs it from the front. This explains the bisected constellation.

	Some researchers see the Mesopotamian constellations Hired Man ([[ḪUN.GA2\|<sup>l</sup><sup>ú</sup>ḪUN.GA<sub>2</sub>]], today: [[Aries]]) and True Shepherd of the Heavens ([[SIPA.ZI.AN.NA]], today: [[Orion]]) as a representation of this bullfight between Enkidu (Hired Man on the invisible hindquarters of the bull) and Gilgamesh. The figure of Orion stretches out one hand towards the bull's head and, according to the Almagest, swings a club with the other as if to hit the bull between the horns - as reported in the Epic of Gilgamesh (tablet 6). In addition, the shepherd figure (for humans) is a metaphor for rulers, which can be traced back to Sumerian times for kings and lives on today in the symbolism of Christian bishops. However, the divine shepherd is typically Dumuzi, Ishtar's husband, assigned to the labourer's constellation. The connection between the constellations Ori-Tau-Ari is therefore very speculative without written evidence. Writing as a cultural technique had only just been invented at this time. Only a few commercial documents and no astronomical texts have survived from the 3rd millennium.		Some researchers see the Mesopotamian constellations Hired Man ([[ḪUN.GA2\|<sup>l</sup><sup>ú</sup>ḪUN.GA<sub>2</sub>]], today: [[Aries]]) and True Shepherd of the Heavens ([[SIPA.ZI.AN.NA]], today: [[Orion]]) as a representation of this bullfight between Enkidu (Hired Man on the invisible hindquarters of the bull) and Gilgamesh. The figure of Orion stretches out one hand towards the bull's head and, according to the Almagest, swings a club with the other as if to hit the bull between the horns - as reported in the Epic of Gilgamesh (tablet 6). In addition, the shepherd figure (for humans) is a metaphor for rulers, which can be traced back to Sumerian times for kings and lives on today in the symbolism of Christian bishops. However, the divine shepherd is typically Dumuzi, Ishtar's husband, assigned to the labourer's constellation. The connection between the constellations Ori-Tau-Ari is therefore very speculative without written evidence. Writing as a cultural technique had only just been invented at this time. Only a few commercial documents and no astronomical texts have survived from the 3rd millennium.<gallery>
			File:O.1054 color.jpg\|Bull of Heaven slaughtered (O1054).
			File:Tau seal Wallenfels1993.png\|Taurus on Mesopotamian seal print, Wallenfels (1993).
			File:Tau+cap seal Wallenfels1993.png\|Taurus accompanied by a Goat-Fish on Mesopotamian seal print, Wallenfels (1993).
			</gallery>

	==== Greco-Roman ====		==== Greco-Roman ====

Sushoff at 18:56, 4 June 2026

2026-06-04T18:56:29Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:56, 4 June 2026
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	[[File:Fig7 taurueschen 800dpi.jpg\|thumb\|Taurus as drawn on a clay tablet ([https://recherche.smb.museum/detail/1973695/astronomische-tafel VAT 7851]) from Seleucid time, new drawing published by Hoffmann (2025)<ref>Hoffmann, S.M. (2025). Image Analysis of VAT 7851, [https://orientalistik.univie.ac.at/publikationen/afo/ Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)] 56, 45-53</ref>.]]		[[File:Fig7 taurueschen 800dpi.jpg\|thumb\|Taurus as drawn on a clay tablet ([https://recherche.smb.museum/detail/1973695/astronomische-tafel VAT 7851]) from Seleucid time, new drawing published by Hoffmann (2025)<ref>Hoffmann, S.M. (2025). Image Analysis of VAT 7851, [https://orientalistik.univie.ac.at/publikationen/afo/ Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)] 56, 45-53</ref>.]]
	[[File:TauAll+year.jpg\|thumb\|Mesopotamian terms in the sign of Taurus; the diagram shows that the terminology was changed around 320±10 BCE (Hoffmann and Hunger 2024).<ref>Hoffmann, S. M. and Hunger, H. (2024). Terminology in Taurus, The Bull. Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires, 4, 121</ref>]]		[[File:TauAll+year.jpg\|thumb\|Mesopotamian terms in the sign of Taurus; the diagram shows that the terminology was changed around 320±10 BCE (Hoffmann and Hunger 2024).<ref>Hoffmann, S. M. and Hunger, H. (2024). Terminology in Taurus, The Bull. Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires, 4, 121</ref>]]
	[[File:Fig1 taurus tablet 150dpi sciLogs.jpg\|thumb\|Taurus sign with drawings of Pleiades (Bristle), Hyades (Chariot), Bull, and the Moon during a total lunar eclipse in the Moon's hypsoma; drawing by Hoffmann (2025)<ref>Hoffmann, S.M. (2025). Image Analysis of VAT 7851, [https://orientalistik.univie.ac.at/publikationen/afo/ Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)] 56, 45-53</ref> ]]		[[File:Fig1 taurus tablet 150dpi sciLogs.jpg\|thumb\|Taurus sign with drawings of Pleiades (Bristle), Hyades (Chariot), Bull, and the Moon during a total lunar eclipse in the Moon's hypsoma; [https://recherche.smb.museum/detail/1973695/astronomische-tafel VAT 7851], drawing by Hoffmann (2025)<ref>Hoffmann, S.M. (2025). Image Analysis of VAT 7851, [https://orientalistik.univie.ac.at/publikationen/afo/ Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)] 56, 45-53</ref> ]]
	The shape of a bull is quite easily recognisable in the sky in this asterism. Two open star clusters stand out prominently: the Hyades and the Pleiades.<ref>Hoffmann, Susanne M. Wie der Löwe an den Himmel kam. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart 2021</ref> They are sometimes seen as the pillars of a gate through which the sun, moon and planets pass. By adding further stars, they become the figure of half a bull. Greek mythology explains the absence of the back of the bull by the fact that it is swimming.		The shape of a bull is quite easily recognisable in the sky in this asterism. Two open star clusters stand out prominently: the Hyades and the Pleiades.<ref>Hoffmann, Susanne M. Wie der Löwe an den Himmel kam. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart 2021</ref> They are sometimes seen as the pillars of a gate through which the sun, moon and planets pass. By adding further stars, they become the figure of half a bull. Greek mythology explains the absence of the back of the bull by the fact that it is swimming.

Sushoff at 18:55, 4 June 2026

2026-06-04T18:55:29Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:55, 4 June 2026
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	==Etymology and History==		==Etymology and History==
	[[File:Fig7 taurueschen 800dpi.jpg\|thumb\|Taurus as drawn on a clay tablet (VAT 7851) from Seleucid time, new drawing published by Hoffmann (2025)<ref>Hoffmann, S.M. (2025). Image Analysis of VAT 7851, [https://orientalistik.univie.ac.at/publikationen/afo/ Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)] 56, 45-53</ref>.]]		[[File:Fig7 taurueschen 800dpi.jpg\|thumb\|Taurus as drawn on a clay tablet ([https://recherche.smb.museum/detail/1973695/astronomische-tafel VAT 7851]) from Seleucid time, new drawing published by Hoffmann (2025)<ref>Hoffmann, S.M. (2025). Image Analysis of VAT 7851, [https://orientalistik.univie.ac.at/publikationen/afo/ Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)] 56, 45-53</ref>.]]
	[[File:TauAll+year.jpg\|thumb\|Mesopotamian terms in the sign of Taurus; the diagram shows that the terminology was changed around 320±10 BCE (Hoffmann and Hunger 2024).<ref>Hoffmann, S. M. and Hunger, H. (2024). Terminology in Taurus, The Bull. Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires, 4, 121</ref>]]		[[File:TauAll+year.jpg\|thumb\|Mesopotamian terms in the sign of Taurus; the diagram shows that the terminology was changed around 320±10 BCE (Hoffmann and Hunger 2024).<ref>Hoffmann, S. M. and Hunger, H. (2024). Terminology in Taurus, The Bull. Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires, 4, 121</ref>]]
	[[File:Fig1 taurus tablet 150dpi sciLogs.jpg\|thumb\|Taurus sign with drawings of Pleiades (Bristle), Hyades (Chariot), Bull, and the Moon during a total lunar eclipse in the Moon's hypsoma; drawing by Hoffmann (2025)<ref>Hoffmann, S.M. (2025). Image Analysis of VAT 7851, [https://orientalistik.univie.ac.at/publikationen/afo/ Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)] 56, 45-53</ref> ]]		[[File:Fig1 taurus tablet 150dpi sciLogs.jpg\|thumb\|Taurus sign with drawings of Pleiades (Bristle), Hyades (Chariot), Bull, and the Moon during a total lunar eclipse in the Moon's hypsoma; drawing by Hoffmann (2025)<ref>Hoffmann, S.M. (2025). Image Analysis of VAT 7851, [https://orientalistik.univie.ac.at/publikationen/afo/ Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)] 56, 45-53</ref> ]]

YoulaAzkarrula: /* Transfer and Transformation of the Constellation */

2026-06-04T05:07:25Z

Transfer and Transformation of the Constellation

← Older revision		Revision as of 05:07, 4 June 2026
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	File:Aratea fol. 42v.jpg\|Pleiades as Seven Sisters in the Leiden Aratea		File:Aratea fol. 42v.jpg\|Pleiades as Seven Sisters in the Leiden Aratea
	File:Tau uranometria.png\|Taurus in Bayer's Uranometria (1603)		File:Tau uranometria.png\|Taurus in Bayer's Uranometria (1603)
			File:H.A. Rey's stick figure stellarium-075.png\|H.A. Rey's stick figure of Taurus (1952)
			File:O. Hlad's stick figure stellarium-076.png\|O. Hlad's stick figure of Taurus (1988)
	</gallery>		</gallery>

Sushoff at 10:54, 2 June 2026

2026-06-02T10:54:17Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:54, 2 June 2026
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	* [[References (Medieval and Early Modern)\|References (medieval)]]		* [[References (Medieval and Early Modern)\|References (medieval)]]

	[[Category:Eurasia]] [[Category:~~Constellation~~]] [[Category:~~Asterism~~]][[Category:~~Almagest~~]] [[Category:~~Mesopotamian~~]] [[Category:~~West Asian~~]] [[Category:~~Asian~~]][[Category:Modern]]		[[Category:Eurasia]] [[Category:Mesopotamian]] [[Category:West Asian]] [[Category:Asian]]
	[[Category:88 IAU-Constellations]] [[Category:Tau]][[Category:Zodiac]]		[[Category:Constellation]] [[Category:Asterism]]
			[[Category:Almagest]] [[Category:Africa]]
			[[Category:Modern]][[Category:88 IAU-Constellations]]
			[[Category:Tau]]
			[[Category:Rubric]] [[Category:Lunar System]] [[Category:Zodiac]]

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:03, 22 July 2026
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	The shape of a bull is quite easily recognisable in the sky in this asterism. Two open star clusters stand out prominently: the Hyades and the Pleiades.<ref>Hoffmann, Susanne M. Wie der Löwe an den Himmel kam. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart 2021</ref> They are sometimes seen as the pillars of a gate through which the sun, moon and planets pass. By adding further stars, they become the figure of half a bull. Greek mythology explains the absence of the back of the bull by the fact that it is swimming.		The shape of a bull is quite easily recognisable in the sky in this asterism. Two open star clusters stand out prominently: the Hyades and the Pleiades.<ref>Hoffmann, Susanne M. Wie der Löwe an den Himmel kam. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart 2021</ref> They are sometimes seen as the pillars of a gate through which the sun, moon and planets pass. By adding further stars, they become the figure of half a bull. Greek mythology explains the absence of the back of the bull by the fact that it is swimming.

	In reality, of course, the zodiacal constellation - like all the others - is taken from Mesopotamia.		In reality, of course, the zodiacal constellation – like all the others – is taken from Mesopotamia.
	[[File:Kugel aur+tau.JPG\|thumb\|Kugel Globe: Auriga and Taurus (drawing by SMH 2024)<ref>Hoffmann (2025), Some Results on the Ancient Globes, Globe Studies – The Journal of the International Coronelli Society, 69, 4169.</ref>]]		[[File:Kugel aur+tau.JPG\|thumb\|Kugel Globe: Auriga and Taurus (drawing by SMH 2024)<ref>Hoffmann (2025), Some Results on the Ancient Globes, Globe Studies – The Journal of the International Coronelli Society, 69, 4169.</ref>]]

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	The most important city in Sumer was Uruk, whose city goddess is Inanna/Ishtar. After Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu had already performed other heroic deeds, they fight together in Uruk against the celestial bull sent by Ishtar: the Bull of Heaven ([[GU4.AN.NA\|<sup>mul</sup>GU<sub>4</sub>.AN.NA]]) belonged to Ishtar's father, the sky god Anu, and was therefore a deity or mythical creature. The heroes succeed in defeating the beast when Enkidu grabs the bull from behind and Gilgamesh grabs it from the front. This explains the bisected constellation.		The most important city in Sumer was Uruk, whose city goddess is Inanna/Ishtar. After Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu had already performed other heroic deeds, they fight together in Uruk against the celestial bull sent by Ishtar: the Bull of Heaven ([[GU4.AN.NA\|<sup>mul</sup>GU<sub>4</sub>.AN.NA]]) belonged to Ishtar's father, the sky god Anu, and was therefore a deity or mythical creature. The heroes succeed in defeating the beast when Enkidu grabs the bull from behind and Gilgamesh grabs it from the front. This explains the bisected constellation.

	Some researchers see the Mesopotamian constellations Hired Man ([[ḪUN.GA2\|<sup>l</sup><sup>ú</sup>ḪUN.GA<sub>2</sub>]], today: [[Aries]]) and True Shepherd of the Heavens ([[SIPA.ZI.AN.NA]], today: [[Orion]]) as a representation of this bullfight between Enkidu (Hired Man on the invisible hindquarters of the bull) and Gilgamesh. The figure of Orion stretches out one hand towards the bull's head and, according to the Almagest, swings a club with the other as if to hit the bull between the horns - as reported in the Epic of Gilgamesh (tablet 6). In addition, the shepherd figure (for humans) is a metaphor for rulers, which can be traced back to Sumerian times for kings and lives on today in the symbolism of Christian bishops. However, the divine shepherd is typically Dumuzi, Ishtar's husband, assigned to the labourer's constellation. The connection between the constellations Ori-Tau-Ari is therefore very speculative without written evidence. Writing as a cultural technique had only just been invented at this time. Only a few commercial documents and no astronomical texts have survived from the 3rd millennium.<gallery>		Some researchers see the Mesopotamian constellations Hired Man ([[ḪUN.GA2\|<sup>l</sup><sup>ú</sup>ḪUN.GA<sub>2</sub>]], today: [[Aries]]) and True Shepherd of the Heavens ([[SIPA.ZI.AN.NA]], today: [[Orion]]) as a representation of this bullfight between Enkidu (Hired Man on the invisible hindquarters of the bull) and Gilgamesh. The figure of Orion stretches out one hand towards the bull's head and, according to the Almagest, swings a club with the other as if to hit the bull between the horns – as reported in the Epic of Gilgamesh (tablet 6). In addition, the shepherd figure (for humans) is a metaphor for rulers, which can be traced back to Sumerian times for kings and lives on today in the symbolism of Christian bishops. However, the divine shepherd is typically Dumuzi, Ishtar's husband, assigned to the labourer's constellation. The connection between the constellations Ori-Tau-Ari is therefore very speculative without written evidence. Writing as a cultural technique had only just been invented at this time. Only a few commercial documents and no astronomical texts have survived from the 3rd millennium.<gallery>
	File:O.1054 color.jpg\|Bull of Heaven slaughtered (O1054).		File:O.1054 color.jpg\|Bull of Heaven slaughtered (O1054).
	File:Tau seal Wallenfels1993.png\|Taurus on Mesopotamian seal print, Wallenfels (1993).		File:Tau seal Wallenfels1993.png\|Taurus on Mesopotamian seal print, Wallenfels (1993).
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	From Pamias and Zucker (2013)<ref>Ératosthènes de Cyrène: Catastérrismes, translated by Pamìas, Jordi und Zucker, Arnaud, Les Belles Lettres, Paris 2013</ref> translated to English by us.		From Pamias and Zucker (2013)<ref>Ératosthènes de Cyrène: Catastérrismes, translated by Pamìas, Jordi und Zucker, Arnaud, Les Belles Lettres, Paris 2013</ref> translated to English by us.

	'''Variant 1''' (p. ~~45-46~~)<blockquote>It is said that he was placed among the constellations for having carried Europa across the sea from Phoenicia to Crete, as Euripides recounts in his Phrixos. This earned him Zeus's distinction and a place among the most visible constellations. Others claim that it is a cow, the replica of Io, and that it was out of consideration for the latter that it [the constellation] received this privilege from Zeus.</blockquote><blockquote>The stars named Hyades define the contours of the forehead and face of Taurus. At the break in the image of Taurus, at the height of the back, is the Pleiades, which has seven stars, and that is why it is also given the name ‘Heptaster’ (seven stars). In reality, only six are visible, as the seventh is completely unremarkable.</blockquote><blockquote>Taurus has seven stars, and it moves backwards with its head tucked towards its body: one at the base of each of its horns —the brightest being the one on the left—, one above each eye, one above each nostril, one above each shoulder: these are called ‘the Hyades’; it also has one on its left front knee, two on its hooves, one on its right knee, two on its neck, three on its back —the last of which is bright—, one under its belly, and one bright star on its chest. In all, eighteen. </blockquote>'''Variant 2''' (p.47)<blockquote>It is said that he was placed among the constellations for having carried Europa safely across the sea from Phoenicia to Crete, as Euripides recounts in his Phrixos. This earned him Zeus's distinction and a place among the most visible constellations. Others claim that it is a cow that is among the constellations, the replica of Io; out of consideration for the latter, she received this privilege from Zeus.</blockquote><blockquote>The stars named ‘Hyades’ define the contours of the bull's forehead and face; Phercydes of Athens says that they are the nurses of Dionysus, known as the ‘nymphs of Dodona’. Taurus has a star on each of its horns, two on its forehead, one on each eye, one on each nostril (the latter are called ‘the Hyades’); it also has one on its front knee, two on its neck, three on its back, one on its hoof, one on its right knee, two on its belly, and one on its chest. Eighteen in all.</blockquote>		'''Variant 1''' (p. 45–46)<blockquote>It is said that he was placed among the constellations for having carried Europa across the sea from Phoenicia to Crete, as Euripides recounts in his Phrixos. This earned him Zeus's distinction and a place among the most visible constellations. Others claim that it is a cow, the replica of Io, and that it was out of consideration for the latter that it [the constellation] received this privilege from Zeus.</blockquote><blockquote>The stars named Hyades define the contours of the forehead and face of Taurus. At the break in the image of Taurus, at the height of the back, is the Pleiades, which has seven stars, and that is why it is also given the name ‘Heptaster’ (seven stars). In reality, only six are visible, as the seventh is completely unremarkable.</blockquote><blockquote>Taurus has seven stars, and it moves backwards with its head tucked towards its body: one at the base of each of its horns —the brightest being the one on the left—, one above each eye, one above each nostril, one above each shoulder: these are called ‘the Hyades’; it also has one on its left front knee, two on its hooves, one on its right knee, two on its neck, three on its back —the last of which is bright—, one under its belly, and one bright star on its chest. In all, eighteen. </blockquote>'''Variant 2''' (p.47)<blockquote>It is said that he was placed among the constellations for having carried Europa safely across the sea from Phoenicia to Crete, as Euripides recounts in his Phrixos. This earned him Zeus's distinction and a place among the most visible constellations. Others claim that it is a cow that is among the constellations, the replica of Io; out of consideration for the latter, she received this privilege from Zeus.</blockquote><blockquote>The stars named ‘Hyades’ define the contours of the bull's forehead and face; Phercydes of Athens says that they are the nurses of Dionysus, known as the ‘nymphs of Dodona’. Taurus has a star on each of its horns, two on its forehead, one on each eye, one on each nostril (the latter are called ‘the Hyades’); it also has one on its front knee, two on its neck, three on its back, one on its hoof, one on its right knee, two on its belly, and one on its chest. Eighteen in all.</blockquote>

	===== Hipparchus =====		===== Hipparchus =====
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	The most famous of the Greek myths about the bull is the abduction of Princess Europa of Phoenicia. Zeus had transformed himself into a bull, she played with him, sat on his back and then he galloped into the water and swam to Crete. Euripides tells this story and also found its way into astronomical literature via Eratosthenes. Today, the motif is depicted on Greek 2 euro coins.		The most famous of the Greek myths about the bull is the abduction of Princess Europa of Phoenicia. Zeus had transformed himself into a bull, she played with him, sat on his back and then he galloped into the water and swam to Crete. Euripides tells this story and also found its way into astronomical literature via Eratosthenes. Today, the motif is depicted on Greek 2 euro coins.

	Mythographers favour the Pleiades story of the nymph Pleione and her seven daughters, who supposedly want to remain virgins but are pursued by the lustful Orion. They apparently do not achieve their goal of eternal virginity, because each of them becomes pregnant: none by Orion. Six of them give birth to sons of the gods, one of them - Merope - marries the mortal Sisyphus (from the Greek ‘merops’, mortal).		Mythographers favour the Pleiades story of the nymph Pleione and her seven daughters, who supposedly want to remain virgins but are pursued by the lustful Orion. They apparently do not achieve their goal of eternal virginity, because each of them becomes pregnant: none by Orion. Six of them give birth to sons of the gods, one of them – Merope – marries the mortal Sisyphus (from the Greek ‘merops’, mortal).

	In Mesopotamia, the Celestial Bull is undoubtedly from the Epic of Gilgamesh:		In Mesopotamia, the Celestial Bull is undoubtedly from the Epic of Gilgamesh: